Operations on Wet or Slippery Runways
Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

Figure 5-1. Airspace
Controlled airspace, that is, airspace within which some or all aircraft may be subject to ATC, consists of those areas designated as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E airspace.
Much of the controlled airspace begins at either 700 feet or 1,200 feet above the ground. The 700-foot lateral limits and floors of Class E airspace are defined by a magenta vignette; while the 1,200-foot lateral limits and floors are defined by a blue vignette if it abuts uncontrolled airspace. Floors other than 700 feet or 1,200 feet are shown by a number indicating the floor.
Class A—Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600 and is not depicted on VFR sectional charts. No flight under VFR, including VFR-on-top, is authorized in Class A airspace.
Class B—Class B airspace consists of controlled airspace extending upward from the surface or higher to specified altitudes. Each Class B airspace sector, outlined in blue on the sectional aeronautical chart, is labeled with its delimiting altitudes. On the Terminal Area Chart, each Class B airspace sector is also outlined in blue and labeled with its delimiting arcs, radials, and altitudes. Each Class B airspace location will contain at least one primary airport. An ATC clearance is required prior to operating within Class B airspace.
A pilot landing or taking off from one of a group of 12 specific, busy airports must hold at least a Private Pilot Certificate. At other airports, a student pilot may not operate an aircraft on a solo flight within Class B airspace or to, from, or at an airport located within Class B airspace unless both ground and flight instruction has been received from an authorized instructor to operate within that Class B airspace or at that airport, and the flight and ground instruction has been received within that Class B airspace or at the specific airport for which the solo flight is authorized. The student’s logbook must be endorsed within the preceding 90 days by the instructor who gave the flight training and the endorsement must specify that the student has been found competent to conduct solo flight operations in that Class B airspace or at that specific airport.
Each airplane operating within Class B airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio with appropriate ATC frequencies, and a 4096 code transponder with Mode C automatic altitude-reporting capability.
Class C—Class C airspace is controlled airspace surrounding designated airports within which ATC provides radar vectoring and sequencing for all IFR and VFR aircraft. Each airplane operating within Class C airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio with appropriate frequencies and a 4096 code transponder with Mode C automatic altitude-reporting capability. Communications with ATC must be established prior to entering Class C airspace.
Class C airspace consists of two circles, both centered on the primary airport. The surface area has a radius of 5 NM. The airspace of the surface area normally extends from the surface of Class C airspace airport up to 4,000 feet above that airport. Some situations require different boundaries. The shelf area has a radius of 10 NM. The airspace between the 5 and 10 NM rings begins at a height of 1,200 feet and extends to the same altitude cap as the inner circle. An outer area with a normal radius of 20 NM surrounds the surface and shelf areas. Within the outer area, pilots are encouraged to participate but it is not a VFR requirement.
Class C airspace service to aircraft proceeding to a satellite airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to allow time to change to the appropriate tower or advisory frequency. Aircraft departing satellite airports within Class C airspace shall establish two-way communication with ATC as soon as practicable after takeoff. On aeronautical charts, Class C airspace is depicted by solid magenta lines.
Class D—Class D airspace extends upward from the surface to approximately 2,500 feet AGL (the actual height is as needed). Class D airspace may include one or more airports and is normally 4 NM in radius. The actual size and shape is depicted by a blue dashed line and numbers showing the top. When the ceiling of Class D airspace is less than 1,000 feet and/or the visibility is less than 3 SM, pilots wishing to takeoff or land must hold an instrument rating, must have filed an instrument flight plan, and must have received an appropriate clearance from ATC. In addition, the aircraft must be equipped for instrument flight.
At some locations, a pilot who does not hold an instrument rating may be authorized to takeoff or land when the weather is less than that required for visual flight rules. When special VFR (SFVR) flight is prohibited, it will be depicted by “No SVFR” above the airport information on the chart. Special VFR requires the aircraft to be operated clear of clouds with flight visibility of at least 1 SM. For Special VFR operations between sunset and sunrise, the pilot must hold an instrument rating and the airplane must be equipped for instrument flight. Requests for Special VFR arrival or departure clearance should be directed to the airport traffic control tower.
Class E—Magenta shading identifies Class E airspace starting at 700 feet AGL, and an area with no shading (or blue shading if next to Class G airspace) identifies Class E airspace starting at 1,200 feet AGL. It may also start at other altitudes. All airspace from 14,500 feet to 17,999 feet and airspace above 60,000 feet is Class E airspace. It also includes the surface area of some airports with an instrument approach but no control tower. An airway is a corridor of controlled airspace extending from 1,200 feet above the surface (or as designated) up to and including 17,999 feet MSL, and 4 NM either side of the centerline. The airway is indicated by a centerline, shown in blue.
Class G—Class G is airspace within which ATC has neither the authority nor responsibility to exercise any control over air traffic.
Prohibited Areas are blocks of airspace within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.
Restricted Areas denote the presence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of Restricted Areas without authorization of the using or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants.
Warning Areas contain the same hazardous activities as those found in Restricted Areas, but are located in international airspace.
Military Operations Areas (MOAs) consist of airspace established for the purpose of separating certain military training activities from instrument flight rules (IFR) traffic. Pilots operating under VFR should exercise extreme caution while flying within an active MOA. Any Flight Service Station (FSS) within 100 miles of the area will provide information concerning MOA hours of operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the controlling agency for traffic advisories.
Alert Areas may contain a high volume of pilot training activities or an unusual type of aerial activity, neither of which is hazardous to aircraft. Pilots of participating aircraft, as well as pilots transiting the area, are equally responsible for collision avoidance.
An Airport Advisory Area is the area within 10 statute miles of an airport where a control tower is not in operation but where a Flight Service Station (FSS) is located. The FSS provides advisory service to aircraft arriving and departing. It is not mandatory for pilots to use the advisory service, but it is strongly recommended that they do so.
Aircraft are requested to remain at least 2,000 feet above the surface of National Parks, National Monuments, Wilderness and Primitive Areas, and National Wildlife Refuges.
Military Training Routes (MTRs) have been developed for use by the military for the purpose of conducting low-altitude, high-speed training. Generally, MTRs are established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of 250 knots.
IFR Military Training Routes (IR) operations are conducted in accordance with instrument flight rules, regardless of weather conditions. VFR Military Training Routes (VR) operations are conducted in accordance with visual flight rules. IR and VR at and below 1,500 feet AGL (with no segment above 1,500) will be identified by four digit numbers, e.g., VR1351, IR1007. IR and VR above and below 1,500 feet AGL (segments of these routes may be below 1,500) will be identified by three digit numbers, e.g., IR341, VR426. MTRs are charted on IFR low altitude enroute charts, VFR sectional charts and area planning charts.
Rules governing flight under VFR have been adopted to assist the pilot in meeting their responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft. Minimum weather conditions and distance from clouds required for VFR flight are listed in Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-2. Basic VFR weather minimums
When operating within a Class B, C, D, or E airspace designated for an airport, the ceiling must not be less than 1,000 feet. If the pilot intends to land, take off, or enter a traffic pattern at an airport within the lateral boundaries of Class B, C, D, or E airspace designated for an airport, the ground visibility must be at least 3 miles at that airport. If ground visibility is not reported, 3 miles flight visibility is required.
When taking off from a slippery runway, delay full-power checks until the aircraft is lined up on the runway and ready for takeoff.
After takeoff from a slushy runway, the landing gear should be cycled up and down to minimize the possibility of the gear being frozen in the up position. If departing from an airstrip with wet snow or slush on the takeoff surface, the gear should not be retracted immediately so that any wet snow or slush is allowed to air-dry.
LAHSO operations include landing and holding short of an intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway or taxiway. LAHSO is an ATC procedure that requires pilot participation to balance the needs for increased airport capacity and system efficiency, consistent with safety. Student pilots or pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not participate in the program. The pilot-in-command has the final authority to accept or decline any land and hold short clearance. The safety and operation of the aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot. Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance if they determine it will compromise safety. Available landing distance (ALD) data is published in the special notices section of the Chart Supplements U.S. and in the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications. Pilots should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of having “basic” VFR weather conditions is to allow pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft and ground vehicle operations.
You must be familiar with the markings and signs used at airports, which provide directions and assist pilots in airport operations. Chapter 12 of the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) and Chapter 2, Section 3 of the Aeronautical Information Manual are excellent resources for learning this subject. Some of the most common markings and signs are included in the Airman Knowledge Testing Supplement for Commercial Pilot (CT-8080-1D) that shipped with this Test Prep. You can expect questions that will test your knowledge of Figures 56 through 65:
Figure 56 #1 depicts an outbound destination sign, which defines directions to takeoff runways. #2 is a mandatory instruction sign, typically used as a holding position sign at the beginning of takeoff runways.
Figure 57 depict direction and destination signs, which provide information on locating areas such as runways, terminals, cargo areas, and the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of an intersection.
Figure 58 shows an airport diagram with a mandatory instruction sign. This sign denotes an entrance to a runway, a critical area, or a prohibited area. It is frequently used as a taxiway/runway hold position sign.
Figure 59 shows a taxiway diagram and a direction sign array, which identifies location in conjunction with multiple intersecting taxiways. When more than one taxiway designation is shown on the sign, each designation and its associated arrow is separated from the other taxiway designations by either a vertical message divider or a taxiway location sign.
Figure 60 #1 is a taxiway ending marker, which indicates the taxiway does not continue. #2 is a direction sign array, which identifies location in conjunction with multiple intersecting taxiways.
Figure 61 is a direction sign array, with the boxed A in the middle being the taxiway location sign.
Figure 62 is a direction sign array without a location sign included. Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. The black inscription identifies the designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of the intersection that a pilot would normally be expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.
Figure 63 is a direction sign array, with the boxed A in the middle being the taxiway location sign. Orientation of signs are from left to right in a clockwise manner. Left turn signs are on the left of the location sign and right turn signs are on the right side of the location sign.
Figure 64 is a mandatory instruction sign. It is a runway/runway hold position sign, which includes where you must hold short of intersecting runway.
Figure 65 is a taxiway ending marker, which indicates the taxiway does not continue.
A hot spot is a location on an airport movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, and where heightened attention by pilots and drivers is necessary. The FAA depicts hot spots in Chart Supplements with symbols using three shapes with two distinct meanings: a circle or ellipse for ground movement hot spots and a cylinder for wrong-surface hot spots. To address wrong-surface events where an aircraft lines up to or lands on the incorrect runway, taxiway, or airport, the FAA is releasing Arrival Alert Notices (AANs) at several airports with a history of misalignment risk. AANs include graphics that visually depict the approach to a particular airport with a history of misalignment risk and language that describes the misalignment risk. AANs incorporate the standardized hot spot symbology.
When operating an aircraft under VFR in level cruising flight more than 3,000 feet above the surface and below 18,000 feet MSL, a pilot is required to maintain an appropriate altitude in accordance with certain rules. This requirement is sometimes called the hemispherical cruising rule, and is based on magnetic course. See Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3. VFR cruising altitudes
Vision is the most important physical sense for safe flight. Two major factors that determine how effectively vision can be used are the level of illumination, and the technique of scanning the sky for other aircraft.
Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique, one that maximizes visual capabilities. Because the eyes focus on only a narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished by systematically focusing with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements. Each movement should not exceed 10°, and each area should be observed for at least one second. At night, scan slowly to permit off-center viewing (peripheral vision). Prior to starting any maneuver, a pilot should visually scan the entire area for other aircraft. Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion and stays in one scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course. If a target shows neither lateral or vertical motion, but increases in size, take evasive action.
When climbing or descending VFR on an airway, execute gentle banks, right and left, to provide for visual scanning of the airspace. Particular vigilance should be exercised when operating in areas where aircraft tend to converge, such as near airports and over VOR stations.
Atmospheric haze reduces the ability to see traffic or terrain during flight, making all features appear to be farther away than their actual distance.
In preparation for a night flight, the pilot should avoid bright white lights for at least 30 minutes before the flight.
Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by a number of physiological factors. While some of the factors may be beyond the control of the pilot, awareness of cause and effect will minimize any adverse effects. The body has no built-in alarm system to alert the pilot of many of these factors.
Hypoxia, a state of oxygen deficiency (insufficient supply), impairs functions of the brain and other organs. Headache, sleepiness, dizziness, and euphoria are all symptoms of hypoxia. For optimum protection, pilots should avoid flying above 10,000 feet MSL for prolonged periods without breathing supplemental oxygen. Part 91 requires that when operating an aircraft at cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500 feet MSL up to and including 14,000 feet MSL, supplemental oxygen shall be used by the minimum flight crew during that time in excess of 30 minutes at those altitudes. Every occupant of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental oxygen above 15,000 feet. If under the effects of hypoxia, time of useful consciousness decreases with altitude.
If rapid decompression occurs in a pressurized aircraft above 30,000 feet, a pilot’s time of useful consciousness is about 30 seconds. During a rapid decompression at high altitudes, the pilot should don the oxygen mask and begin a rapid descent to an appropriate lower altitude.
Aviation breathing oxygen should be used to replenish an aircraft oxygen system for high altitude flight. Oxygen used for medical purposes or welding should not be used because it may contain too much water. The excess water could condense and freeze in oxygen lines when flying at high altitudes, and this could block oxygen flow. Also, constant use of oxygen containing too much water may cause corrosion in the system. Specifications for aviator’s breathing oxygen are 99.5% pure oxygen and not more than .005 mg of water per liter of oxygen. Never use grease- or oil-covered hands, rags, or tools while working with oxygen systems.
Hyperventilation, a deficiency (insufficient supply) of carbon dioxide within the body, can be the result of rapid or extra deep breathing due to emotional tension, anxiety, or fear. The common symptoms of hyperventilation include drowsiness, and tingling of the hands, legs, and feet. A pilot should be able to overcome the symptoms or avoid future occurrences of hyperventilation by talking aloud, breathing into a bag, or slowing the breathing rate.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include headache, drowsiness, or dizziness. Large accumulations of carbon monoxide in the human body result in a loss of muscular power. Susceptibility to hypoxia due to inhalation of carbon monoxide increases as altitude increases. A pilot who detects symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning should immediately shut off the heater and open the air vents.
Various complex motions, forces, and visual scenes encountered in flight may result in various sensory organs sending misleading information to the brain. Spatial disorientation may result if these body signals are used to interpret flight attitude. The best way to overcome spatial disorientation is by relying on aircraft instrument indications rather than taking a chance on the sensory organs.
Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and flying. Even a small amount of alcohol present in the human body can impair flying skills, judgment and decision-making abilities. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia. The regulations prohibit pilots from performing crew member duties within 8 hours after drinking any alcoholic beverage (bottle to throttle) or while under the influence of alcohol. However, due to the slow destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under influence more than 8 hours after drinking a moderate amount of alcohol.
Fatigue is one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety because it might not be discernible to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue can be either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). Acute fatigue, a normal occurrence of everyday living, is the tiredness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of sleep. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not enough time for a full recovery from repeated episodes of acute fatigue. The underlying cause of chronic fatigue is generally not rest-related and may have deeper points of origin.
Rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a nose-up attitude, and a disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low, or dive attitude. Rapid deceleration caused by a quick reduction of the throttles can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up, or stall attitude. An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain, or both can have the opposite effect.
Rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater height, and atmospheric haze causes the illusion of being a greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach.
In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called dark adaptation. Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet, by carbon monoxide inhaled by smoking or from exhaust fumes, by deficiency in Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight.
ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
Risk management is the part of the decision making process which relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.
The ADM process addresses all aspects of decision making in the flight deck and identifies the steps involved in good decision making. Steps for good decision making are:
There are a number of classic behavioral traps into which pilots have been known to fall. Pilots, particularly those with considerable experience, as a rule always try to complete a flight as planned, please passengers, meet schedules, and generally demonstrate that they have the “right stuff.” These tendencies ultimately may lead to practices that are dangerous and often illegal, and may lead to a mishap. All experienced pilots have fallen prey to, or have been tempted by, one or more of these tendencies in their flying careers. These dangerous tendencies or behavior patterns, which must be identified and eliminated, include:
Each ADM student should take the Self-Assessment Hazardous Attitude Inventory Test in order to gain a realistic perspective on his/her attitudes toward flying. The inventory test requires the pilot to provide a response which most accurately reflects the reasoning behind his/her decision. The pilot must choose one of the five given reasons for making that decision, even though the pilot may not consider any of the five choices acceptable. The inventory test presents extreme cases of incorrect pilot decision making in an effort to introduce the five types of hazardous attitudes.
ADM addresses the following five hazardous attitudes:
Hazardous attitudes which contribute to poor pilot judgment can be effectively counteracted by redirecting that hazardous attitude so that appropriate action can be taken. Recognition of hazardous thoughts is the first step in neutralizing them in the ADM process. Pilots should become familiar with a means of counteracting hazardous attitudes with an appropriate antidote thought. When a pilot recognizes a thought as hazardous, the pilot should label that thought as hazardous, then correct that thought by stating the corresponding antidote.
If you hope to succeed at reducing stress associated with crisis management in the air or with your job, it is essential to begin by making a personal assessment of stress in all areas of your life. Good flight deck stress management begins with good life stress management. Many of the stress coping techniques practiced for life stress management are not usually practical in flight. Rather, you must condition yourself to relax and think rationally when stress appears. The following checklist outlines some thoughts on flight deck stress management.
The DECIDE Model, comprised of a six-step process, is intended to provide the pilot with a logical way of approaching decision making. The six elements of the DECIDE Model represent a continuous loop decision process which can be used to assist a pilot in the decision making process when they are faced with a change in a situation that requires a judgment. This DECIDE Model is primarily focused on the intellectual component, but can have an impact on the motivational component of judgment as well. If a pilot practices the DECIDE Model in all decision making, its use can become very natural and could result in better decisions being made under all types of situations.
[10-2024]