1: Fundamentals of Instructing

The Learning Process

Human Behavior

Effective Communications

The Teaching Process

Teaching Methods

The Instructor as a Critic

Evaluation

Instructional Aids

Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

Techniques of Flight Instruction

Planning Instructional Activity

The Learning Process

Learning is a change in a learner’s behavior as a result of experience. The amount of learning is controlled by the individual’s desires. The behavior change can be physical and overt, or it can be intellectual or attitudinal and not easily detected. Yet almost everyone has a set of goals in life, and learns best those things which apply directly to those goals.

All learning involves experience. To be effective, instructors must provide experiences the learner can identify as steps toward attaining their personal goals. The learning process involves several types of learning: verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem solving, and emotional. Learning is complex, and while working to learn one thing, something else may be learned. This additional learning is called incidental learning.

The basis of all learning is one’s perceptions, which are directed to the brain from one or more of five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Perception results when a person gives meaning to sensations being experienced. The ability to perceive is affected by:

  1. The physical organism which is the vehicle by which we become aware of, and operate in, the world of which we are a part.
  2. Our basic need, which is to enhance our own organized self.
  3. Our goals and values, which color every experience we have.
  4. Our self-concept, which is the way we picture ourselves, is a powerful determinant in learning. A positive self-concept enhances our perception, but a negative self-concept inhibits the perceptual processes. It introduces psychological barriers which prevent our perceiving.
  5. Time and opportunity, which are needed in order to provide the experiences necessary to perceive. Instruction by the use of a properly planned training syllabus is far superior to learning by trial and error, because it allows the instructor to teach the relationship of perceptions as they occur.
  6. Recognition of the element of threat. Fear adversely affects our perception by narrowing our perceptual field.

Insights involve the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Instructors must point out to the learner the way details work together to form complete ideas and concepts. A learner is able to tie experiences together and develop insights when there is no threat, and when they have a favorable self-concept, or self-image. A negative self-concept prevents a learner from being receptive to new experiences and causes them to reject additional training.

Motivation is possibly the most important force which governs the individual’s progress and ability to learn. Motivations can be tangible or intangible, and they may be obvious, or subtle and difficult to identify. The desire for personal gain, either the acquisition of objects or position, is a basic positive motivation for all human endeavor, and helps an individual learn. Negative motivation engenders fear and is perceived by the learner as a threat. Negative motivation seldom promotes effective learning. The use of negative motivation is discouraged, but carefully used reproof often produces desired results with learners who are overconfident and impulsive.

There are several principles that break down and explain the process of learning. The principle of readiness says that individuals learn best only when they are ready to learn. If they see no reason for learning, it is likely they will not learn. The principle of exercise explains that those things most often repeated are best remembered. This is the reason for practice and drill. The principle of primacy shows that instructors must teach all facts correctly the first time. The principle of effect, which is based on the emotional reaction of the learner, explains that a person learns best when the experience is pleasant and satisfying. Learning is weakened if the experience is unpleasant. The principle of intensity says that an individual will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. The principle of recency says that the things most recently learned will be the things best remembered. This is the reason for post flight critiques and lesson summaries.

Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain classifies the levels of thinking behaviors, based on the goals and objectives. This classification system according to presumed relationships comprises six levels of intellectual behavior and progresses from the simplest to the most complex: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Besides the four basic levels of learning, educational psychologists have developed several additional levels. These classifications consider what is to be learned. Is it knowledge only, a change in attitude, a physical skill, or a combination of knowledge and skill? One of the more useful categorizations of learning objectives includes three domains: cognitive domain (knowledge), affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values), and psychomotor domain (physical skills). Each of the domains has a hierarchy of educational objectives. The listing of the hierarchy of objectives is often called a taxonomy. A taxonomy of educational objectives is a systematic classification scheme for sorting learning outcomes into the three broad categories (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) and ranking the desired outcomes in a developmental hierarchy from least complex to most complex.

During the learning experience, an individual may be aided or hindered by things previously learned. If the learning of one thing aids the learning of something else, positive transfer occurs. But, if the learning of one thing hinders the learning of something else, negative transfer occurs. For example, positive transfer allows proficiency in flying rectangular patterns to aid in learning to correctly fly traffic patterns.

The formation of correct habits is essential for further learning and for correct performance after the completion of training. The most acceptable way of forming correct habits is by using the building block method of instruction. Each simple task is performed acceptably and correctly before the next learning task is introduced.

There are several reasons people forget. The most common of these are:

Material that is thoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting. Rote learning is superficial and is not easily retained, but meaningful learning goes deep, because it involves principles and concepts anchored in the individual’s own experience. The following principles have a direct application to recall:

Skills, both motor and mental, are best taught by providing the learner with a clear, step-by-step example. This gives the learner a correct idea of what to do and helps him/her understand each step in the sequence. Learning a skill does not progress along a straight upward path. The performance increases rapidly at first, then levels off for a time before it begins to increase again; this is called a learning plateau. The learner must be made aware of it so they will not become discouraged at the seeming cessation of progress. One primary consideration in developing a skill is the length of time devoted to practice. A learner reaches a point at which additional practice is not only unproductive, but is actually harmful. When the learner tires, errors increase and motivation declines.

Memory is an integral part of the learning process. Although there are several theories of how the memory works, a widely accepted view is the multi-stage concept which states that memory includes three parts: sensory register, working or short-term, and long-term systems. The sensory register receives input from the environment and quickly processes it according to the individual’s preconceived concept of what is important.

Several common steps help retention in the short-term memory. These include rehearsal or repetition of the information, and sorting or categorization into systematic chunks, a process called “coding.” Methods of coding vary with subject matter, but typically they include some type of association; also, use of rhymes or mnemonics is common. Variations of the coding process are practically endless. They may consist of the use of acronyms, the chronology of events, images, semantics, or an individually developed structure based on the person’s past experiences. In addition, the coding process may involve “recoding” to adjust the information to individual experiences—this is when actual learning begins to take place. Therefore, recoding may be described as a process of relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge already in memory.

Long-term memory is where information is stored for future use. For the stored information to be useful, some special effort must have been expended during the coding process of the working or short-term memory. The coding should have provided meaning and connections between old and new information. If initial coding was not properly accomplished, recall will be distorted and it may be impossible. The more effective the coding process, the easier the recall. However, it should be noted that the long-term memory is a reconstruction, not a pure recall of information or events.

Fatigue is one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety because it might not be discernible to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue can be either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). Acute fatigue, a normal occurrence of everyday living, is the tiredness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of sleep. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not enough time for a full recovery from repeated episodes of acute fatigue. The underlying cause of chronic fatigue is generally not “rest-related” and may have deeper points of origin.

Fatigue is the primary consideration in determining the length and frequency of flight instruction periods. Flight instruction should be continued only as long as the learner is alert, receptive to instruction, and performing at a level consistent with experience.

Human Behavior

The pyramid of human needs suggested by Professor Maslow lists five levels of needs. The lower level must be satisfied before a level above it can be satisfied. The levels of needs, beginning with the most basic, are:

Human needs that must be met to encourage learning include physiological, security, belonging, esteem, cognitive and aesthetic, and self-actualization.

There are certain behavior patterns learners use to soften the feeling of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protect their feeling of personal worth and adequacy. These are called defense mechanisms, and while they can serve a useful purpose, they can also be a hindrance because they involve some self-deception and distortion of reality:

The relationship between an instructor and his/her learners has a profound impact on how much the individuals learn. Learners expect the instructor to exercise certain controls, and they recognize and submit to authority as a valid means of control. A good instructor directs and controls the behavior of the learners, guiding them and helping them accomplish their goals.

Individuals learn more from wanting to learn than from being forced to learn. One basic function of an instructor is to help the individual want to learn. Seven ways of encouraging an individual to want to learn are:

Effective Communications

Effective communication is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received. Effective communication requires three elements: the source (the instructor), the symbols (the words or signs used to convey the message), and the receiver (the learner). These elements interrelate dynamically and reciprocally in the complex, two-way process of communication.

The instructor should have a positive attitude toward himself/herself, toward the material being presented, and toward the learner. For effective communication, the instructor should select symbols that are meaningful to the learner. This is best done by the instructor speaking or writing from a broad background of accurate, up-to-date, stimulating material. The most effective communication uses a variety of symbols that use the channels of hearing and seeing and, when appropriate, of feeling. Effective communication takes place only when the learners react with understanding and change their behavior accordingly. The three basic barriers to effective communication are:

Lack of common core of experience—this is the greatest single barrier to successful communication. Communication can be effective only to the extent that the experiences—physical, mental, or emotional—of the people involved are similar. Words never carry precisely the same meaning from the mind of the communicator to the mind of the receiver. Experiences of the receiver add meaning to the words that are heard.

Confusion between the symbol and the thing symbolized—communicators must be careful to differentiate between the symbols and the things they represent.

Overuse of abstractions—concrete words refer to objects that can be experienced directly. Abstract words stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, that do not put specific mental images in the mind of the receiver. When using abstractions, the communicator does not necessarily evoke in the receiver’s mind the specific items of experience they intend to. The communicator can maintain control of the image produced in the mind of the listener or reader by using more concrete terms than abstractions.

The Teaching Process

Logical steps for teaching new material are:

  1. Preparation—this includes making a written lesson plan which defines the material to be covered, outlines the lesson objectives, clearly states the goals to be attained, makes certain that all necessary supplies and equipment are readily available, and the equipment is operating properly.
  2. Presentation—the instructor must determine which method of presentation is best suited for the information to be conveyed. Some of these methods are: lecture method, and the demonstration/performance method.
  3. Application—this gives the learner an opportunity to apply what is being taught. By allowing the learner to apply the newly gained knowledge early in the learning process, faulty habits can be prevented.
  4. Review and evaluation—learners should be evaluated on their performance and on the attainment of the stated objectives and goals at the end of each step in the learning process. Deficiencies and faults should be carefully noted and steps taken to remedy them.

Teaching Methods

There are three main teaching methods: the lecture method, guided discussion method, and demonstration/performance method.

The lecture method is used primarily to introduce learners to a new subject, but it is also a valuable method for summarizing ideas, showing relationships between theory and practice, and re-emphasizing main points. Lectures are the most effective way of presenting a large number of ideas in a short time. Lectures may be given to either small or large groups and may be used to introduce a complete training program or a unit of instruction. They may be combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning and direction. The first step in organizing a lecture is to establish the objective and identify the desired outcome. The entire lecture should be directed toward these goals. There are several types of lectures; among them are:

The teaching lecture is one of the most widely used methods of teaching, but requires a high degree of organization and skill in presentation. There is very little direct learner feedback, so the instructor must be on the watch for subtle responses to determine whether or not the learners are assimilating the material. When presenting a teaching lecture, the instructor should be confident, relaxed, and in complete control of the situation. The lecture is best delivered in an extemporaneous manner, using a mental or written outline. But the material should not be read directly from notes nor recited from memory; it should be delivered in a relaxed way to help put the learners at ease.

Substandard English and vulgarisms should never be used; they detract from an instructor’s dignity and reflect upon the intelligence of the learner. Lectures need not be formal. The use of well-formulated and directed questions during an informal lecture encourages active learner participation and allows the instructor to get immediate feedback. Questioning allows the instructor to determine the experience and background of the learner, to add variety and stimulate interest, and to check learner understanding.

One of the oldest and most effective teaching methods is that of the guided discussion. By the skillful use of questioning, the instructor directs the class and keeps everyone working toward the goals and objectives of the lesson, to develop an understanding of the subject. The more intense the discus-sion and the greater the participation, the more effective the learning will be. Guided discussion requires a high degree of skill on the part of the instructor. The instructor must encourage questions, exercise patience and tact, and comment on all responses. Sarcasm and ridicule must never be used. A guided discussion must be carefully planned, with attention paid to the following topics:

  1. Select a topic the learners can profitably discuss. Very little learning can take place unless all of the learners have some knowledge to exchange with each other.
  2. Establish a specific lesson objective and desired learning outcome. Guided discussions are most useful when the objective is stated at least at the understanding level of learning. Guided discussions are of little use when teaching at the rote level.
  3. Conduct adequate research to become familiar with the topic. The instructor must have such complete knowledge of the subject that they can turn a wrong answer into a springboard to develop further meaningful discussion.
  4. Organize the main and subordinate points of the lesson in a logical sequence. A guided discussion consists of three main parts:
    1. Introduction. This gains the attention of the learner, provides motivation, and presents an overview of the lesson.
    2. Discussion. The instructor guides the discussion so that all of the main points are discussed and the lesson progresses logically to the objective.
    3. Conclusion. This consists of a summary, remotivation, and closure.
  5. Plan at least one lead-off question for each desired learning outcome. The purpose of a lead-off question is to get the discussion started, not to seek a specific answer. Lead-off questions should not have a short answer, but should begin with such words as “how” or “why” to encourage discussion.

Questions used in guided discussion may be classified as:

Overhead—these questions are directed at the entire group to stimulate thought and response from each group member. Overhead questions are normally used as leadoff questions.

Rhetorical—the rhetorical question is also used to stimulate thought, but it is normally answered by the instructor.

Direct—a direct question is used to get specific information from an individual member of the class.

Reverse—a reverse question is used as an answer to a learner’s question. Rather than giving the learner a direct answer, the instructor leads the learner to provide the answer.

Relay—a relay question is similar to a reverse question except that it is redirected to the group, rather than to the learner who asked the question.

When it appears that the learners have discussed the ideas that support the particular part of the lesson, the instructor should summarize what the learners have accomplished. In a discussion lesson, the interim summary is one of the most effective tools available to the instructor.

Such skills as cross-country flight planning are best taught by the demonstration/performance method. Demonstration/performance instruction has five essential phases:

  1. Explanation. The instructor explains to the learner the precise actions to be performed. Explanation must be clear, detailed, and pertinent to the objectives of the lesson.
  2. Demonstration. The instructor shows the learner the correct way to perform the task.
  3. Learner performance. The learner performs the task.
  4. Instructor supervision. Concurrent with the learner performance is supervision by the instructor.
  5. Evaluation. The instructor judges the performance. This gives the instructor the opportunity to correct any misunderstandings the learner might have.

Regardless of the teaching method used, the instructor should organize the material in a way that will produce the most learning. One effective organization is:

Introduction. The introduction sets the stage for learning. It establishes a common ground between the instructor and the learner to capture and hold the attention of the group. It indicates what is to be covered during the presentation and relates this coverage to the entire course. Finally, it establishes a receptive attitude toward the subject and leads into the lesson development. The introduction should contain these features:

  1. Attention. This allows the instructor to gain the attention of the class and focus it on the subject.
  2. Motivation. This appeals to each learner personally and accentuates the desire to learn.
  3. Overview. This is a clear, concise presentation of the objectives of the lesson and the key ideas give the learners a road map of the route to be followed.

Development. The instructor organizes the material in a manner that shows the relationship between the main points:

  1. From the past to the present.
  2. From the simple to the complex.
  3. From the known to the unknown. This allows the instructor to use the previous knowledge and experience of the learner.
  4. From the most frequently used to the least frequently used.

Conclusion. This retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. All pertinent points are reviewed in order to reinforce them in the learner’s memory.

The Instructor as a Critic

An instructor has the unique responsibility of criticizing the actions of a learner in order to help the learner evaluate their own performance. A critique is not part of the evaluating process, it is part of the learning process, and is not necessarily negative. A critique considers the positive aspects of the performance as well as the negative.

A critique may be either oral, written, or both, and it should come immediately after the learner’s individual or group performance. At this time, the details of the performance are easy to recall. A critique should improve the learner’s performance and provide something constructive from which to work, and upon which the learner can build. It should provide direction and guidance to raise his or her level of performance. An effective critique should be:

Evaluation

The most practical means of evaluation is direct or indirect oral questioning of the learner. Oral questions can be divided into two categories: fact and thought. Fact questions are based on memory or recall. Thought questions require the learner to combine knowledge of facts with the ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions.

Some of these desirable results of proper quizzing are as follows: it can reveal the effectiveness of the instructor’s training procedures, and check the individual’s retention of what has been learned. It not only reviews material already covered by the learner, but can be used to retain the learner’s interest and stimulate thinking. Proper oral questioning emphasizes the important points of the training, and identifies points which need more emphasis. Finally, it checks the individual’s comprehension of what has been learned, and promotes active participation.

Effective questions used in oral quizzing have some general characteristics. There is only one correct answer to each question, but that answer may be expressed in a variety of ways. The answer should be easily evaluated by the instructor. Effective questions must apply to the subject being taught, and they should be brief, concise, clear, and definite. They must be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the learners. They must center on only one idea; one idea = one question. The questions must present a challenge to the learners. They must be difficult for the learner at that particular stage of training. And finally, effective questions demand and deserve the use of good English.

Before attempting to answer a learner’s question, the instructor must clearly understand the question. After the question is answered, the instructor must determine whether or not the learner is satisfied with the answer.

The skill of the test writer determines the validity of a written test as an evaluator of a learner’s knowledge. The characteristics of a good written test are:

There are two basic types of written tests: supply-type and selection-type tests. A supply-type test requires the learners to organize their knowledge, and demands an ability to express ideas in written form. A supply-type test is valuable for measuring the learners’ generalized understanding of a subject. The main disadvantage of this type of test is the difficulty and lack of uniformity in grading. The same test graded by different instructors will likely be scored differently. Selection-type tests are highly objective and can be scored the same, regardless of the learner taking the test or the person grading it. Selection-type tests, which include multiple-choice and true/false tests, make it possible to directly compare the accomplishment of learners within the same or different classes.

True-False tests are well adapted to testing knowledge of facts and details, especially in cases where there are only two possible answers. The chief disadvantage of true-false tests is the probability of the learner guessing the answer.

Multiple-choice tests may be used to determine learner achievement, ranging from acquisition of facts to understanding, reasoning, and the ability to apply what has been learned. Multiple-choice tests are appropriate when these conditions exist:

There are three major difficulties encountered in constructing multiple-choice test items. These are:

  1. The item stem of the question must be expressed clearly and without ambiguity.
  2. The answer must be stated in such a way that it cannot be refuted.
  3. The lures, or distracters, must be attractive to those learners who do not possess the knowledge or understanding necessary to recognize the correct answer.

Instructional Aids

Instructional aids are used to secure and hold the attention of the learners. When properly used, they enhance learning, but it is extremely easy to misuse them. These guidelines will help prevent misuse of instructional aids:

  1. Clearly establish the lesson objective before deciding on the use of instructional aids.
  2. Gather the necessary data by researching the available support material.
  3. Organize the material into an outline or lesson plan that includes all key points to be presented.
  4. The instructional aids should be chosen only after all the previous steps are complete. The aids should concentrate on the key points.

Instructional aids should be simple and compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved. They should never be used by the instructor as a crutch.

Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

The requirements for a flight instructor include professionalism which relates to the instructor’s public image. The characteristics of an instructor’s professionalism include:

  1. Sincerity. Any facade of instructor pretentiousness, whether it be real or mistakenly assumed by the learner, will immediately cause the learner to lose confidence in the instructor, and little learning will be accomplished. Anything less than sincere performance destroys the effectiveness of the professional instructor.
  2. Acceptance of the learner. The professional relationship between the instructor and the learner should be based on a mutual acknowledgment that both the learner and the instructor are important to each other, and both are working toward the same objectives. Under no circumstances should an instructor do anything which implies degradation of the learner.
  3. Personal appearance and habits. A flight instructor who is rude, thoughtless, and inattentive cannot hold the respect of the learners, regardless of his/her piloting ability.
  4. Demeanor. The instructor should avoid erratic movements, distracting speech habits, and capricious changes in mood.
  5. Safety practices and accident prevention. A flight instructor must meticulously observe all reg-ulations and recognized safety practices during all flight operations.
  6. Proper language. The use of profanity and obscene language leads to distrust, or at best, to a lack of complete confidence.
  7. Self-improvement. Professional flight instructors must never become complacent or satisfied with their own qualifications and ability.

An effective instructor maintains a high level of learner motivation by making each lesson a pleasurable experience. The instructor must realize that people are not always attracted to something because it is easy. Most people will devote the required effort to things which bring such rewards as self-enhancement and personal satisfaction.

The instructor should make learning to fly interesting by keeping the learners apprised of the course and lesson objectives. Not knowing the objectives leads the learner to confusion, disinterest, and uneasiness. The instructor should guide the learners in exploration and experimentation, to help them develop their own capabilities and self-confidence.

For instruction to produce the desired results, an instructor must carefully and correctly analyze the personality, thinking, and ability of each learner. Individuals who have been incorrectly analyzed as slow thinkers may actually be quick thinkers, but act slowly or at the wrong time because of lack of confidence. Slow learners can often be helped by assigning subgoals which are more easily attainable than the normal learning goals. This allows the learner to practice elements of the task until confidence and ability is gained.

Apt learners also create problems. Because they make less mistakes, they may assume that the correction of errors is unimportant. Such overconfidence results in faulty performance. A good instructor will constantly raise the standard of performance demanded of apt learners and will demand greater effort.

Flight instructors fail to provide competent instruction when they permit their learners to get by with a substandard performance, or without learning thoroughly some item of knowledge pertinent to safe piloting. The positive approach to flight instruction points out to the learner the pleasurable features of aviation before the unpleasant possibilities are discussed. One example of a positive approach is to include in the first instructional flight a normal round-trip flight to a nearby airport.

Anxiety, or fear, is probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction. The responses to anxiety vary greatly, ranging from hesitancy to act, to the impulse “to do something even if it’s wrong.” Some learners may freeze in place and do nothing, while others may do unusual things without rational thought or reason. Normal reaction to anxiety can be countered by reinforcing the learner’s enjoyment of flying, and by teaching them to treat fear as a normal reaction rather than ignoring it. Normal individuals react to stress by responding rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training. Abnormal reactions to stress are evidenced by:

Techniques of Flight Instruction

Flight instruction is normally done by the demonstration/performance method. The steps in this method of instruction are:

  1. Instructor tells—instructor does.
  2. Learner tells—instructor does.
  3. Learner tells—learner does.
  4. Learner does—instructor evaluates.

Integrated flight instruction is when learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers, from the first time each maneuver is introduced, by both outside visual references and reference to the flight instruments. The first instruction on the function of the flight controls includes the expected instrument indications as well as the outside references used in attitude control. The objective of integrated flight instruction is to help the learner form firm habits of observing and relying on flight instruments from his/her very first piloting experience. It is important that the learners develop, from the start of their training, the habit of looking for other air traffic at all times when they are not operating under simulated instrument conditions.

The most commonly recognized obstacles to learning during flight instruction are:

Feeling of unfair treatment—learner motivation declines when a learner believes the instructor is making unreasonable demands for performance and progress.

Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations—learner impatience is a greater deterrent to learning pilot skills than is generally recognized. It can be corrected by the instructor presenting the necessary preliminary training one step at a time, with clearly stated goals for each step.

Worry or lack of interest—learners who are worried or emotionally upset do not learn well, and they derive little benefit from any practice performed.

Physical discomfort, illness, or fatigue—these factors slow the rate of learning during both class-room instruction and flight training. Learners who are uncomfortable and not completely at ease cannot learn at the normal rate. Fatigue is the primary consideration in determining the length and frequency of flight instruction periods.

Apathy, fostered by poor instruction—learners quickly become apathetic when they recognize that the instructor has made inadequate preparation for the instruction being given, or when the instruc-tion appears to be deficient, contradictory, or insincere.

Anxiety—anxiety may place additional burdens on the instructor, and it limits the learners’ perceptive ability and retards the development of insights. The individual must be comfortable, confident in the instructor and the airplane, and at ease for effective learning to occur.

Successful instructors teach their learners not only “how,” but also “why” and “when.” By incorporating ADM and risk management into each lesson, the aviation instructor helps the individual learn, develop, and reinforce the decision-making process which ultimately leads to sound judgment and good decision-making skills. Risk management, ADM, automation management, situational awareness, and controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness are the skills included under higher order thinking skills (HOTS). HOTS should be taught throughout the curriculum from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract.

Planning Instructional Activity

Before any instruction can begin, a determination of standards and objectives must be made. Training for piloting an aircraft requires the development and assembly, into their proper relationships, of many segments or “blocks of learning.” A learner can master these segments of the overall pilot perfor-mance requirements individually, and can progressively combine them with other related segments until their sum meets the final objective.

After the overall training objectives have been established, the next step is the identification of the blocks of learning which constitute the necessary parts of the total objective. Extraneous blocks of instruction are expensive frills, especially in flight instruction, and detract rather than assist in the completion of the final objectives.

The form of the syllabus may vary, but it is always an abstract or digest of the course of training. It consists of the blocks of learning to be completed in the most efficient order. Any practical training syllabus must be flexible, and should be used primarily as a guide.

When an instructor must depart from the order prescribed by the syllabus, they must consider the relationships of the blocks of learning affected. When a scheduled lesson must be postponed, it is often preferable to skip to a completely different part of the syllabus, rather than proceeding to the next block in which performance may depend on skills to be developed during the lesson that is being postponed. Each lesson in a training syllabus includes an objective, content, and completion standards.

A lesson plan is an organized outline or “blueprint” for a single instructional period and should be prepared in written form for each ground school and flight period, regardless of the instructor’s experience. Lesson plans help instructors keep a constant check on their own activity, as well as that of their learners. An adequate lesson plan, when properly used, should:

  1. Ensure a wise selection of material and the elimination of unimportant details;
  2. Make certain that due consideration is given to each part of the lesson;
  3. Aid the instructor in presenting the material in a suitable sequence for efficient learning;
  4. Provide an outline for the teaching procedure to be used;
  5. Serve as a means of relating the lesson to the objectives of the course of training;
  6. Give confidence to an inexperienced instructor;
  7. Promote uniformity of instruction regardless of the instructor or the date the lesson is given.

In a well-planned lesson, each lesson is a unified segment of instruction, and each lesson contains new material that is related to lessons previously presented. Each lesson should be reasonable in scope, planned practically in terms of the conditions under which the training is to be conducted. The lesson should be planned and taught so its relation to the course objectives are clear to each learner. And every lesson, when adequately developed, falls logically into the four steps of the teaching process: presentation, application, review, and evaluation.

[10-2024]