8: Arrival and Approach

Standard Terminal Arrivals (STARs)

Communications During Arrival

Instrument Approach Terms and Abbreviations

Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) Chart

Radar Approaches

Visual and Contact Approaches

Missed Approach

Runway Visual Range (RVR)

Inoperative Components

Hazards On Approach

Closing the Flight Plan

Standard Terminal Arrivals (STARs)

STARs are used in much the same way as DPs—to relieve frequency congestion and to expedite the arrival of aircraft into the terminal area. Like DPs, STARs may be issued by ATC whenever it is deemed appropriate. As with DPs, the PIC may either accept or decline a STAR, but if the STAR is accepted, the pilot must possess at least the textual description of the procedure. Should the pilot not wish to use a STAR, a notation to that effect in the remarks section of the flight plan will make ATC aware of the PIC’s decision.

The STAR is depicted by a procedural track with a corresponding textual arrival descirption for each transition route as shown in Figure 8-1, GLEN ROSE Nine Arrival. Familiarize yourself with FAA Legends 22 through 24, as they have information on STARs which will be available for you during the FAA Knowledge Exam.

Figure 8-1. Standard terminal arrival (STAR)

Communications During Arrival

Should the pilot elect to cancel the IFR flight plan and proceed VFR to the destination, the pilot is expected to monitor the ATIS (if available) for non-control information regarding runway in use, weather, etc. The ATIS broadcast will be updated upon receipt of any official weather. Should the visibility exceed 5 statute miles, or the ceiling be above 5,000 feet AGL, those items may be omitted. If inbound to an airport with an operating air traffic control tower, a pilot who has canceled their IFR flight plan must contact the tower at least 5 miles from the airport to comply with Class D airspace requirements. If Class B or Class C airspace exists at the destination, remaining VFR requirements for those must also be met.

As the IFR flight enters the terminal area, it is common to receive radar vectors to the final approach course, or be constantly reassigned altitudes. Climbs and descents should be made at an optimum rate of between 500 and 1,500 feet per minute. If at any time, the aircraft is unable to climb or descend at 500 feet, ATC must be advised. During a radar vector to the final approach course, it is good operating practice to read back the portions of clearances which contain heading and altitude assignments.

In order to avoid excessive vectoring in the terminal environment, ATC may request pilots to adjust their speed. ATC will express all speeds in terms of knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) and use only 10-knot increments. Pilots complying with such a request are expected to maintain that indicated speed within ±10 knots. If unable to comply with the request, the pilot is expected to advise ATC immediately of the speed that will be used.

If radar vectored and about to pass through the final approach course, the pilot may not turn inbound unless an approach clearance has been received. Instead, the pilot should maintain the course and query ATC. ATC occasionally needs to vector an aircraft through the approach course, and in such cases the controllers should state their intentions to do so. Controllers are required to advise you if they will be vectoring you across the localizer.

If ATC uses the phrase “cleared for approach,” the pilot may use any authorized instrument approach for the airport as long as the entire procedure is followed. If cleared for a specific procedure, such as “cleared for the ILS Runway 31R approach,” the pilot must execute only that ILS approach.

If the pilot is being radar vectored or operating on an unpublished route when approach clearance is received, the pilot must maintain the last assigned altitude until established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach procedure.

LAHSO stands for land and hold short operations. These operations include landing and holding short of an intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway or taxiway. At controlled airports, ATC may clear a pilot to land and hold short. The PIC has the final authority to accept or decline any land and hold short clearance. The safety and operation of the aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot. To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should have, readily available, the published available landing distance (ALD) and runway slope information for all LAHSO runway combinations at each airport of intended landing. Additionally, knowledge about landing performance data permits the pilot to readily determine that the ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe LAHSO. If, for any reason, such as difficulty in discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection, wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot elects to request to land on the full length of the runway, to land on another runway, or to decline LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform ATC, ideally even before the clearance is issued. Once accepted, a LAHSO clearance must be adhered to just as any other ATC clearance, unless an amended clearance is obtained or an emergency occurs. However, a LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing. The airport markings, signage, and lighting associated with LAHSO consist of a three-part system of yellow hold-short markings, red and white signage, and, in certain cases, in-pavement lighting.

Instrument Approach Terms and Abbreviations

The decision height (DH) is the altitude at which, on a precision approach, a decision must be made to either continue the approach or execute a missed approach.

The minimum descent altitude (MDA) is the lowest altitude, expressed in feet above MSL, to which descent is authorized on final approach or during circle-to-land maneuvering in execution of a standard instrument approach procedure where no electronic glide slope is provided.

The final approach fix (FAF) identifies the beginning of the final approach segment of an instrument approach procedure. The FAF for nonprecision approaches is designated by a Maltese cross. On precision approaches, a lightning bolt symbol indicates the FAF. If ATC directs a glide slope intercept altitude which is lower than that published, the actual point of glide slope intercept becomes the FAF.

The final approach point (FAP) applies only to nonprecision approaches with no designated FAF, such as an on-airport VOR or NDB. It is the point at which an aircraft has completed the procedure turn, is established inbound on the final approach course, and may start the final descent. The FAP serves as the FAF and identifies the beginning of the final approach segment.

The glide slope (GS) or glide path provides vertical guidance for aircraft during approach and landing. Applying the glide slope angle and the ground speed to the rate of descent table gives a recommended vertical speed.

An instrument approach procedure (IAP) is a series of predetermined maneuvers for the orderly transfer of an aircraft under instrument flight conditions, from the beginning of the initial approach to a landing or to a point from which a landing may be made visually.

A nonprecision approach is a standard instrument approach procedure in which no electronic glide slope is provided; for example, NDB, VOR, TACAN, ASR, LDA, or SDF approaches.

A precision approach is a standard instrument approach procedure in which an electronic glide slope/glide path is provided; for example, ILS, MLS, or PAR approaches.

A procedure turn (PT) is the maneuver prescribed when it is necessary to reverse direction in order to establish an aircraft on the intermediate approach segment or on the final approach course. A procedure turn (and the initial approach segment) begins by overheading a facility or fix. The maximum speed for a PT is 200 KIAS.

In the case of a radar vector to a final approach fix, or position or a timed approach from a holding fix, or where the procedure is specified “NoPT,” no pilot may make a procedure turn unless, upon receiving the final approach clearance, the pilot so advises ATC and a clearance is received.

A barb indicates the direction or side of the outbound course on which the procedure turn is made. If no barb is depicted then a procedure turn is not authorized. Headings are provided for course reversal using the 45°-type procedure turn. However, the point at which the turn may be commenced and the type and rate of turn is left to the discretion of the pilot. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and a course reversal is required, this type of turn must be executed. When a one-minute holding pattern replaces the procedure turn, the standard entry and the holding pattern must be followed, except when radar vectoring is provided or when “NoPT” is shown on the approach course. The holding maneuver must be executed within the 1-minute time limitation or within the published leg length.

A straight-in approach is one in which the final approach segment is begun without first having executed a procedure turn (such as a holding pattern, teardrop, or 45°-type). Radar vectors to final are straight-in approaches. The straight-in approach may be followed by either a straight-in landing or a circle-to-land maneuver.

Straight-in landing minimums are published when the runway alignment and the IAP final approach course are within 30° of each other, and will be identified by the letter “S” followed by designation of the runway to which they apply; for example, “S-ILS 34.”

The same IAP may furnish circling minimums for use if it is necessary to land on a runway other than the one aligned with the final approach course. These will be identified by the word “circling” and no runway will be designated.

In some cases, the IAP final approach course may not be within 30 of alignment with a runway. Then, only circling minimums will be published.

The initial approach fix (IAF) is the point at which the procedure turn begins, or any fix labeled “IAF” that identifies the beginning of the initial approach segment of an instrument approach procedure. Follow the published feeder route unless instructed otherwise.

The initial approach segment is the segment of an IAP between IAF and the intermediate fix, or the point where the aircraft is established on the intermediate or final approach course. The intermediate approach segment is the segment between the intermediate fix or point and the final approach fix. The final approach segment is the segment between the final approach fix or point and the runway or missed approach point. The missed approach segment is the segment between the missed approach point or the point of arrival at decision height and the missed approach fix at the prescribed altitude.

The visual descent point (VDP) is a point on a final approach course of a nonprecision approach from which a normal descent from the MDA to the runway can be commenced, provided the pilot has the runway, lights, etc., identified.

The side-step maneuver is one that ATC may authorize to a runway that is within 1,200 feet of an adjacent parallel runway. Pilots are expected to commence the side-step maneuvers as soon as possible after the runway, or runway environment is in sight.

Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) Chart

A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flight paths, and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart, or vectors and altitudes issued by the radar controller, is assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and runway or airport alignment during approach for landing.

The IAP chart may be divided into four distinct areas: the plan view, showing the route to the airport; the profile view, showing altitude and descent information; the minimums section, showing approach categories, minimum altitudes, and visibility requirements; and the airport diagram, showing runway alignments, runway lights, and approach lighting systems.

Figure 8-2. Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) Chart

  1. The plan view is that portion of the IAP chart depicted at “A” in Figure 8-2. Above the IAP chart, in the top right, is the procedure identification which identifies the navigation equipment necessary to execute the approach, the runway alignment, the name of the airport, the city and state of airport location. See Figure 8-2, #1. An ILS approach, for example, requires the aircraft to have an operable localizer, glide slope, and marker beacon receiver. A LOC/DME approach would require the aircraft to be equipped with both a localizer receiver and DME. If the approach is aligned within 30° of the centerline, the runway number listed at the top of the approach chart means straight-in landing minimums are published for that runway. If the approach course is not within 30° of the runway centerline, an alphabetic code will be assigned to tie IAP identification (for example, NDB-A, VOR-C), indicating that only circle-to-land minimums are published. This would not preclude a pilot from landing straight-in, however, if the pilot has the runway in sight in sufficient time to make a normal approach for landing, and has been cleared to land.

    The IAP plan view will list in either upper corner, the approach control, tower, and other communications frequencies a pilot will need. Some listings may include a direction (for example, North 120.2, South 120.8).

    The IAP plan view may contain an MSA diagram. The diagram shows the altitude that would provide obstacle clearance of at least 1,000 feet in the defined sector while within 25 NM of the primary omnidirectional NAVAID; usually a VOR or NDB. See Figure 8-2, #2.

    An IAP may include a procedural track around a DME arc to intercept a radial. An arc-to-radial altitude restriction applies while established on that segment of the IAP.

  2. The profile view is that portion of the IAP chart depicted at “B” in Figure 8-2. The profile view shows a side view of the procedures. This view includes the minimum altitude and maximum distance for the procedure turn, altitudes over prescribed fixes, distances between fixes, and the missed approach procedure.
  3. The minimums section is that portion of the IAP chart depicted at “C” in Figure 8-2. The categories listed on instrument approach charts are based on aircraft speed. The speed is 1.3 times VS0 at maximum certificated gross landing weight.
  4. The aerodrome data is that portion of the IAP chart which includes an airport diagram, and depicts runway alignments, runway lights, approach lights, and other important information, such as the touchdown zone elevation (TDZE) and airport elevation. See area “D” in Figure 8-2.

See FAA Legends 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, and 29 for IAP legends, which will be available for you to use during the FAA Knowledge tests.

Radar Approaches

Precision approach radar (PAR) provides elevation (glide path) guidance in addition to azimuth and range information.

On occasion, a no-gyro radar approach may be provided. The controller will direct the pilot when to start and stop turns. All turns should be executed at standard rate, except on final approach. On final approach, all turns will be half-standard rate.

Radar service is automatically terminated upon completion of the radar approach. Pilots are authorized to use any radar IAP for which civil minimums are published.

Visual and Contact Approaches

Under certain conditions, a pilot on an IFR flight plan may be authorized to deviate from the published IAP and proceed to the destination airport visually, while remaining on an IFR flight plan and in the IFR system.

A visual approach may be assigned by ATC or requested by the pilot if:

  1. Surface visibility is at least 3 miles and the ceiling is at least 500 feet above the minimum vectoring altitude;
  2. The pilot has reported the airport or the preceding aircraft in sight; and
  3. The aircraft will remain in VFR conditions.

A contact approach must be requested by the pilot, provided:

  1. The aircraft remains clear of clouds;
  2. The pilot has at least 1 mile flight visibility; and
  3. The pilot can reasonably expect to continue to the airport in the specified conditions.

Controllers may honor the pilot’s request for a contact approach if reported ground visibility is at least 1 mile, the airport has an IAP, and separation from other aircraft can be maintained.

Missed Approach

When executing an early missed approach, fly the instrument approach procedure as specified to the missed approach point (MAP), at or above the MDA or DH, before executing a turning maneuver.

If visual contact is lost during a circling maneuver, make an initial climbing turn toward the approach runway and continue the turn until established on the missed approach course.

Runway Visual Range (RVR)

RVR is an instrumentally derived value that represents the maximum horizontal distance down a specific runway at which a pilot can see and identify standard high intensity runway lights. It is reported in hundreds of feet.

If minimum visibility for an IAP is stated as an RVR value, and RVR is not available, use the comparable values table shown in FAA Legend 11 to get the corresponding value in statute miles.

Inoperative Components

When the localizer fails, an ILS approach is not authorized. When the glide slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision localizer approach. See the inoperative component table in the Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP), for adjustments to minimums due to inoperative airborne or ground system equipment.

Hazards On Approach

Hydroplaning will radically reduce braking effectiveness. It is most likely to occur in conditions of standing water, slush, high speed and smooth runway texture. The best technique to use when landing under such conditions is to apply moderate braking after the wheels have had time to “spin up.” Anti-skid should be on.

Wake turbulence is caused by high-pressure air circulating outward, upward, and around a wing tip. These wing-tip vortices are at their greatest strength when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean and slow.

When the vortices of a large aircraft are close to ground level, they tend to move laterally. Thus, if a large aircraft is landing or taking off, a light crosswind or a light quartering tailwind would tend to hold the upwind vortex over the runway. If landing behind a large aircraft, plan to land past its touchdown point. If departing behind a large aircraft, lift off prior to its rotation point. Climb above and upwind of its flight path.

Closing the Flight Plan

If landing at an airport with an operating control tower, the tower will automatically close the IFR flight plan. When landing at any other airport, it is the pilot’s responsibility to close the flight plan with the last controller or the nearest FSS. Flight service stations will provide airport advisories at non-tower airports.

[10-2024]